Basic Processes and Theories of Human
Development The process of human development emanates from nothing to something; a small lifeless clot of blood to a living being that can assume responsible positions. The human being starts with little beginnings differentiating and structuring itself to produce a personality and identity that are greatly influenced by individual endowments (probably inherited from parents).
Heredity
This is the inborn genetic endowment that human beings receive from their biological parents. Each of us inherited from our parents a specific set of tendencies. For example, we inherited black complexion, long hair and tallness. Beyond such physical characteristics, the direct effects of heredity are much harder to pin down. Probably we inherit some characteristics that affect our ability to solve mathematical problems easily or compose songs easily; but just how large the percentages of such tendencies are inherited is not quite known. However, Nigerians believe that some social vices such as stealing are inherited. As a result when hands are sought for marriage, inquiries on evidence of stealing, chronic ulcer appressive temlencies are made before the marriage of processed.
Principles of Development
The following are the fundamental principles of development.
(1) Development is a product of interactions: Development is a process resultant from a constant flux or interchange of energy within an organism. Its environment, and hereditary forces inherent in the genetic constitution of the organism. An individual is the by-product of the constant interaction of the individual with the environment.
(2) Development follows an orderly sequence: Though individuals differ in rate of growth and development, even then the development follows an orderly sequence in all individuals and shows high degrees of similarity in the order in which various developments appear.
(3) Development is a continuous process. Development is a continuous process which begins from the time of conception in the womb of the mother and continues till death. But it is not always smooth and gradual.
(4) Bilateral to unilateral trend. The newborn infant is essentially a systematical. The infant up to the age of 22 years uses both hands with equal ease. The hand preference starts after the aged of two and a half years.
(5) Different aspects of development are interrelated. Different aspects of development are interrelated and interdependent. The child early social behaviour is interrelated with his physical development. If the child is physically handicapped then his social behaviour will be retarded. This we see that different types of developments are interrelated with his physical development
(6) Development is an individualized process. An individuals develop in their own way. Each child has his own rate of physical, mental, emotional and social development. If we observe seven year old children. we find great differences in their height, weight, social emotional and learning readiness Each at different ages children have different rates of development. The rate of growth is very high in infancy and then it slows down and continues throughout one's life.
(7) Development is cumulative. Development is a cumulative process. Certain changes impress the observer with their dramatic suddenness but actually these changes do not emerge all of a sudden. The child's first words, first steps, are the result of cumulative progress.
(8) Development proceeds from the general to the specific. In all types of developments we find the principle of mass differentiation and integration. The world at the time of birth is a big puzzling blooming confusion for the child. undifferentiated behaviour Out of mass and emerge more differentiated. We can take any development and find that this principle applies, for example, language development of the child begins from the birth cry, as mass response.
THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development has been an area of great importance and interest for the researchers who focus on child development. Here we will describe some of the major theories which explain child development from different angles. All the theories of development can be classified into three broad categories:
(1)Psychoanalytic.
(2)Behaviouristic
(3) Cognitive.
Psychoanalytic theory has been largely derived from the works of Sigmund Freud and Erikson. It emphasis the importance of early childhood experiences on later development of the child and gives importance to unconscious motivation. The behaviourist theory of child development lays importance to learning of stimulus response associations. The associations may result from either classical or operant conditioning procedure. It attempts to be more specific than other theories of development.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856 B 1939) was the founder of psychoanalytical theory. This theory states that the structure of personality is composed of the 10, ego and super-ego, and that mental health depends on keeping balance among them. This theory emphasises the importance of early childhood experiences and unconscious motivations influencing behaviour. Many instinctional urges and memories of traumatic experiences are expressed early in life. They are moved from conscious awareness into the unconscious where they continue to cause anxiety and conflict and to influence behaviour.
Freud in outlining his theory developed an explanation of the basic structure of personality. His theory states that personality is composed of three components the id, ego and super-ego. The id which is the inborn instinctional urges that a person seeks to satisfy is present from birth, it consist of basic instincts and urges that seek gratification, regardless of the consequences.
The second element of personality structure is the ego, which is the rational part of the mind which uses the reality principle to satisfy the id. This begins to develop during the first year of life. The ego consists of mental processes. The powers of reasoning and common sense that seek to help the id fund expression without getting into trouble. The third element of personality structure is the super ego. which is the socially induced moral restrictions that strive to keep the id in check and help the individual attain perfection. It represents those social values that are incorporated into the personality structure of the child. It becomes the conscience that seeks to influence behaviour to conform to social expectations. The id and super ego are often in conflict, causing guilt, anxiety and disturbances. The ego strives to minimise the conflict by keeping the instinctual urges and societal prohibitions in balance.
According to Freud, one of the ways people relieve anxiety and conflict is by employing defence mechanisms which are mental devices that distort reality. Defence mechanisms are employed unconsciously and are seen as pathological only when used in excess to impair effective functioning. The defence mechanisms include the following:
Repression: Dealing with unacceptable impulses by pushing them down into the unconscious mind. Where they continue to cause conflict and exert powerful influences over our behaviour.
Sublimation: Replacing distasteful unacceptable behaviour with behaviour that is socially acceptable. For example, a man filled with anger and hostility and aggression participates in wrestling may explodes into violence.
Displacement: This is transferring strong emotions from a source of frustration and venting them on another object or person who becomes the scape-goat. An example would be a child who becomes angry at her parents takes out her hostile feelings on a toy by hanging the toy.
Reaction formation: Acting completely opposite of the way one feels to hide unacceptable feelings or tendencies. A person might crusade against ethnic discrimination because her or she has such tendencies.
Relisontalisation: Making up excuses for behaviour that would be otherwise unacceptable.
Freud not only developed a theory of personality structure, but he outline a psychosexual theory of development as well. Freud is of the opinion that, the centre of sensual sensitivity, shifts from one body to another as children mature. He identified five stages of psychosexual development.
Oral stage: This is the first year of life, during which child's chief source of sensual gratification centres on the month. The infant's chief source of pleasure and gratification is through sucking, chewing and biting. Such activity increases security and relieves tension.
Anal stage: This is between 2 and 3 years, during which the child's principal source of greatest pleasure is through and activity. This is the age when the child becomes very interested in eliminative functions, toileting activities and training.
Phallic stage: This is between 4 and 5 years. The centre of pleasure shifts to the genitals as children explore their bodies through self manipulation. Freud observed that children of this age can very often be observed taking off their cloths and playing "Doctor" which each other, or asking their mothers whether she has a penis. These observations persuaded Freud that the gratification is focused on and around the genitals during this period. The major conflict of this stage is called Oedipal Conflict, the name deriving from oedipus who killed his father and unintentionally slept with his mother Freud used the term oedipoal for both sexes but other analysts proposed the female variant to be referred to as "Electra complex". In the beginning for both sexes the primary care giver (at least in most societies) and main source of gratification is the mother. As the child develops, however, it starts forming a sexual identity and the dynamics for boys and girls alter. For both sexes, the parents become the focus of drive energy. For the boy, the mother becomes more desired, while the father is the focus of jealousy and rivalry, since he is the one who sleeps with mother, but still he is one of the main caregivers. The id wants to unite with them other and kill the father (like Oedipus did). but the ego, based on the reality principles, known that the father is stronger. The child also feels affectionate towards the father one of the caregivers, and his feelings are ambivalent. The fear that the father will object to the boy's feelings is expressed by the id as fear that the father will castrate him. Freud argued that young girls followed more or less the same psycho-sexual development as boys. Whereas the boy would develop a castration anxiety, the girl would go on to develop penis envy. Envy felt by females toward the males because the males possess a penis. If the conflict is not resolved, a fixation in this stage may lead to adult women striving for superiority over men, if she had overwhelming feelings of devastation du to lack of penis, being seductive and flirtations, or very submissive and with low self-esteem. On the other hand, men can exhibit excessive ambition and vanity.
Latency Stage:
The latency stage is typified by a solidifying of the habits that the child developed in the earlier stages. Whether the oedipal conflict is successfully resolved or not, the drives of the id are not accessible to the ego during this stage of development, since they have been repressed during t hidden. Freud said at age 6 child source of pleasure shifts from self to other persons as child child becomes interested cultivating the friendship of others.
Genital Stage:
The fifth and last stage of psycho-sexual development the genital stage lasts from puberty about the twelfth year of age and onward, it actually continues until development stop which is ideally in the eighteenth year of age, when adulthood starts. This stage represents the major portion of life and the basic task for the individual is the detachment from the parent It is also the time when the individual tries to come in terms with unresolved residues of the early childhood. In this stage, the focus is again on the genitals like in the phallic stage, but this time the energy is expressed with adult sexuality.
PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
Erikson
Erik-Erikson (1902 B 1994) who was a student of psychoanalysis disagreed with Freud on several point. For example, he felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on the sexuality basis for behaviour. Erikson pointed out that there are other psycho social motivations and needs that become the driving forces in human development and behaviour. He accepted Freud's emphasis on early experiences but rejected Freud's neglect of the adult years (Erikson, 1982).
Erikson explain eight stages through which a healthy developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problem in the future.
Trust Vs Mistrust (infants, OB 1 year) infant learn to trust caregivers for sustenance, protection, comfort, and affection. or they develop mistrust because their needs are not met. The infant depends on the parents especially the mother. for food. sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth. regularly, the infants view of the world will be one of trust, should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort and affection, an infant learn trust that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust that is the world is in an undependable, unpredictable and possibly dangerous place.
Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt (2 B 3 years). As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents however are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves and use the birth room. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behaviour, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy B a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, child may instead develop shanic and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
Initiative Vs Guilt (Pre-School 4 B 6 Years)
The child is learning to master the world around her learning basic skills and principles. /things fall down, not up. Round things roll. She learn's how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete his own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. He may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. He may feel guilt when his initiative does not produce desire result. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviours such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike within instances requiring initiative the child may also develop negative behaviours. These behaviours are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviour that seem aggressive, ruthless and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviours such as throwing objects, hitting or yelling, are good examples of observable behaviour during this stage. Pre-school are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices children develop initiative - independence in planning and undertaking activities, but if, instead adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires.
Competence: Industry Vs Inferiority (Childhood, 7 B 12 Years)
The aim of bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such industries' association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious. Children of this stage are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right".. They are now more reasonable o share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognition developmental traits specific for this age group. Children understand te concepts of space and time, in more logical, practical ways, beginning to grasp, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills, reading, writing. telling time. They also get to inform moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance. At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk are being rebellious. Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence, ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things. drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments. They begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find that they are incapable of meeting their teachers and parents expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.
Industry Vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents 13 B 19 Years)
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Super ego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer someness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself as evidence in the promise of a career. The ability to setile on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the soles they will play in the adult. They are apt to experience some role confusion, mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society and may experiment with a variety of behaviours and activities. Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identify regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
Intimacy Vs Isolation (Young Adults 20 B 34 Years)
The intimacy Vs Isokition conflict is emphasized around the ages of 20 B 34. At the start of this stage, identity Vs role confusion is coming to an end, and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adult are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us rejection is painful. Erikson also argues that intimacy has a counterpart, the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's "intimate relations" one people have established their identities they are ready to make long- term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendship or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationship require. If people cannot form these intimate relationship B a sense of isolation may result.
Generativity Vs Stagnation (Middle Adulthood 35 B 65 Years)
Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially B valued work and disciplines are expression of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and of itself achieve generativity During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations when a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity B a sense of productivity and accomplishment B results in contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation B a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
Ego Integrity Vs Despair (Seniors 65 B Onwards)
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life, if we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. The final developmental task is retrospection people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity, if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals.
The second element of personality structure is the ego, which is the rational part of the mind which uses the reality principle to satisfy the id. This begins to develop during the first year of life. The ego consists of mental processes. The powers of reasoning and common sense that seek to help the id fund expression without getting into trouble. The third element of personality structure is the super ego. which is the socially induced moral restrictions that strive to keep the id in check and help the individual attain perfection. It represents those social values that are incorporated into the personality structure of the child. It becomes the conscience that seeks to influence behaviour to conform to social expectations. The id and super ego are often in conflict, causing guilt, anxiety and disturbances. The ego strives to minimise the conflict by keeping the instinctual urges and societal prohibitions in balance.
According to Freud, one of the ways people relieve anxiety and conflict is by employing defence mechanisms which are mental devices that distort reality. Defence mechanisms are employed unconsciously and are seen as pathological only when used in excess to impair effective functioning. The defence mechanisms include the following:
Repression: Dealing with unacceptable impulses by pushing them down into the unconscious mind. Where they continue to cause conflict and exert powerful influences over our behaviour.
Sublimation: Replacing distasteful unacceptable behaviour with behaviour that is socially acceptable. For example, a man filled with anger and hostility and aggression participates in wrestling may explodes into violence.
Displacement: This is transferring strong emotions from a source of frustration and venting them on another object or person who becomes the scape-goat. An example would be a child who becomes angry at her parents takes out her hostile feelings on a toy by hanging the toy.
Reaction formation: Acting completely opposite of the way one feels to hide unacceptable feelings or tendencies. A person might crusade against ethnic discrimination because her or she has such tendencies.
Relisontalisation: Making up excuses for behaviour that would be otherwise unacceptable.
Freud not only developed a theory of personality structure, but he outline a psychosexual theory of development as well. Freud is of the opinion that, the centre of sensual sensitivity, shifts from one body to another as children mature. He identified five stages of psychosexual development.
Oral stage: This is the first year of life, during which child's chief source of sensual gratification centres on the month. The infant's chief source of pleasure and gratification is through sucking, chewing and biting. Such activity increases security and relieves tension.
Anal stage: This is between 2 and 3 years, during which the child's principal source of greatest pleasure is through and activity. This is the age when the child becomes very interested in eliminative functions, toileting activities and training.
Phallic stage: This is between 4 and 5 years. The centre of pleasure shifts to the genitals as children explore their bodies through self manipulation. Freud observed that children of this age can very often be observed taking off their cloths and playing "Doctor" which each other, or asking their mothers whether she has a penis. These observations persuaded Freud that the gratification is focused on and around the genitals during this period. The major conflict of this stage is called Oedipal Conflict, the name deriving from oedipus who killed his father and unintentionally slept with his mother Freud used the term oedipoal for both sexes but other analysts proposed the female variant to be referred to as "Electra complex". In the beginning for both sexes the primary care giver (at least in most societies) and main source of gratification is the mother. As the child develops, however, it starts forming a sexual identity and the dynamics for boys and girls alter. For both sexes, the parents become the focus of drive energy. For the boy, the mother becomes more desired, while the father is the focus of jealousy and rivalry, since he is the one who sleeps with mother, but still he is one of the main caregivers. The id wants to unite with them other and kill the father (like Oedipus did). but the ego, based on the reality principles, known that the father is stronger. The child also feels affectionate towards the father one of the caregivers, and his feelings are ambivalent. The fear that the father will object to the boy's feelings is expressed by the id as fear that the father will castrate him. Freud argued that young girls followed more or less the same psycho-sexual development as boys. Whereas the boy would develop a castration anxiety, the girl would go on to develop penis envy. Envy felt by females toward the males because the males possess a penis. If the conflict is not resolved, a fixation in this stage may lead to adult women striving for superiority over men, if she had overwhelming feelings of devastation du to lack of penis, being seductive and flirtations, or very submissive and with low self-esteem. On the other hand, men can exhibit excessive ambition and vanity.
Latency Stage:
The latency stage is typified by a solidifying of the habits that the child developed in the earlier stages. Whether the oedipal conflict is successfully resolved or not, the drives of the id are not accessible to the ego during this stage of development, since they have been repressed during t hidden. Freud said at age 6 child source of pleasure shifts from self to other persons as child child becomes interested cultivating the friendship of others.
Genital Stage:
The fifth and last stage of psycho-sexual development the genital stage lasts from puberty about the twelfth year of age and onward, it actually continues until development stop which is ideally in the eighteenth year of age, when adulthood starts. This stage represents the major portion of life and the basic task for the individual is the detachment from the parent It is also the time when the individual tries to come in terms with unresolved residues of the early childhood. In this stage, the focus is again on the genitals like in the phallic stage, but this time the energy is expressed with adult sexuality.
PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
Erikson
Erik-Erikson (1902 B 1994) who was a student of psychoanalysis disagreed with Freud on several point. For example, he felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on the sexuality basis for behaviour. Erikson pointed out that there are other psycho social motivations and needs that become the driving forces in human development and behaviour. He accepted Freud's emphasis on early experiences but rejected Freud's neglect of the adult years (Erikson, 1982).
Erikson explain eight stages through which a healthy developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problem in the future.
Trust Vs Mistrust (infants, OB 1 year) infant learn to trust caregivers for sustenance, protection, comfort, and affection. or they develop mistrust because their needs are not met. The infant depends on the parents especially the mother. for food. sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth. regularly, the infants view of the world will be one of trust, should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort and affection, an infant learn trust that others are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust that is the world is in an undependable, unpredictable and possibly dangerous place.
Autonomy Vs Shame & Doubt (2 B 3 years). As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents patience and encouragement helps foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents however are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges. As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves and use the birth room. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behaviour, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy B a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, child may instead develop shanic and doubt about their ability to handle problems.
Initiative Vs Guilt (Pre-School 4 B 6 Years)
The child is learning to master the world around her learning basic skills and principles. /things fall down, not up. Round things roll. She learn's how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete his own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a confusing new emotion. He may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. He may feel guilt when his initiative does not produce desire result. Young children in this category face the challenge of initiative versus guilt. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviours such as crossing a street alone or riding a bike within instances requiring initiative the child may also develop negative behaviours. These behaviours are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve a goal as planned and may engage in behaviour that seem aggressive, ruthless and overly assertive to parents. Aggressive behaviours such as throwing objects, hitting or yelling, are good examples of observable behaviour during this stage. Pre-school are increasingly able to accomplish tasks on their own. If parents and preschool teachers encourage and support children's efforts, while also helping them make realistic and appropriate choices children develop initiative - independence in planning and undertaking activities, but if, instead adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss them as silly and bothersome, children develop guilt about their needs and desires.
Competence: Industry Vs Inferiority (Childhood, 7 B 12 Years)
The aim of bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such industries' association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious. Children of this stage are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals. They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right".. They are now more reasonable o share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognition developmental traits specific for this age group. Children understand te concepts of space and time, in more logical, practical ways, beginning to grasp, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time. At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills, reading, writing. telling time. They also get to inform moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal needs and grooming with minimal assistance. At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk are being rebellious. Erikson viewed the elementary school years as critical for the development of self-confidence, ideally, elementary school provides many opportunities for children to achieve the recognition of teachers, parents and peers by producing things. drawing pictures, solving addition problems, writing sentences and so on. If children are encouraged to make and do things and are then praised for their accomplishments. They begin to demonstrate industry by being diligent, persevering at tasks until completed, and putting work before pleasure. If children are instead ridiculed or punished for their efforts or if they find that they are incapable of meeting their teachers and parents expectations, they develop feelings of inferiority about their capabilities.
Industry Vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents 13 B 19 Years)
The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Super ego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer someness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself as evidence in the promise of a career. The ability to setile on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents ponder the soles they will play in the adult. They are apt to experience some role confusion, mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they will fit into society and may experiment with a variety of behaviours and activities. Erikson proposed, most adolescents achieve a sense of identify regarding who they are and where their lives are headed.
Intimacy Vs Isolation (Young Adults 20 B 34 Years)
The intimacy Vs Isokition conflict is emphasized around the ages of 20 B 34. At the start of this stage, identity Vs role confusion is coming to an end, and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson, 1950). Young adult are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain, and to some of us rejection is painful. Erikson also argues that intimacy has a counterpart, the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of one's "intimate relations" one people have established their identities they are ready to make long- term commitments to others. They become capable of forming intimate, reciprocal relationships (e.g. through close friendship or marriage) and willingly make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationship require. If people cannot form these intimate relationship B a sense of isolation may result.
Generativity Vs Stagnation (Middle Adulthood 35 B 65 Years)
Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially B valued work and disciplines are expression of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and of itself achieve generativity During middle age the primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations when a person makes a contribution during this period, perhaps by raising a family or working toward the betterment of society, a sense of generativity B a sense of productivity and accomplishment B results in contrast, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation B a dissatisfaction with the relative lack of productivity.
Ego Integrity Vs Despair (Seniors 65 B Onwards)
As we grow older and become senior citizens we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life, if we see our life as unproductive, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. The final developmental task is retrospection people look back on their lives and accomplishments. They develop feelings of contentment and integrity, if they believe that they have led a happy, productive life. They may instead develop a sense of despair if they look back on a life of disappointments and unachieved goals.
Birgit Boden
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