Human development is determined by a continuous interaction between heredity and environment. At the moment of conception, a remarkable number of personal characteristics are already determined by the genetic structure of the fertilized ovum. Our genes program our growing cells so that we develop into a person rather than a fish, a bird, or a monkey. They decide our skin and hair, colour, general body size, sex and (to some extent, our intellectual abilities and emotional temperament. The biological predispositions present at birth Our interact with the experiences encountered in the course of growing up to determine individual development. experiences depend on the specific culture, social group, and family in which we are raised. Culture differ in their methods of child-rearing.
The question of whether heredity ("nature") or environment ("nurture") is more important in determining the course of human development has long been a topic of debate. But it seems clear that the two are inseparable. The development of the new born infant depends on the interaction between biological predispositions and the experiences provided by the environment for example, almost all human infants are born with the ability to learn a spoken language, other species are not. In the normal course of development, human beings learn to speak. But they are not able to talk before they have attained a certain level of neurological development. No infant less than a year old speaks in sentences.
Maturation
Genetic determinants are expressed through the process of maturation. Maturation refers to innately determined sequences of growth or bodily changes that are relatively independent of environmental events. We say relatively because such changes occur over a wide range of environmental conditions. Maturation in most apparent during childhood, it continues into adult life, some of the changes that occur at adolescence, as well as some of the changes that occur with ageing, the appearance of gray hair for instance are regulated by a biologically determined time schedule.
Sequences and Stages in Development
Many behaviours follows a natural sequence of development. Infants reach for an object before they are able to pick it up. We learn to walk before we run, we learn to speak words before sentences, we learn to count by role before we understand the concept of numbers. Sequences in development usually proceed from simple behaviours to those that are more differentiated and complex. Psychologists generally agreed that there are orderly sequences in development that depend on the maturation of the organism as it interacts with its environment. In explaining developmental sequences, some psychologists prefer to interpret them as a continuous process. in which biological factors inter play with learning to produce a smooth and continuous change in behaviour. Other psychologists agree on the sequential character of development but are less impressed by the continuity of the process and see it more as a series of steps for this reason, they have introduced the concept of stages. We identified broad stages. when we divide the life span into successive periods of pre-natal. infancy. childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
The Beginning of Human Life
Conception to Infancy:
Life does not just begin from nothing. Pre-natal development and childbirth are made up of biologically programmed sequence of events starting from the formatiu of the foetus through union of the sperm and ovum which define the hereditary endowment. The viability of the foetus increases as the months pass by. Full term for the delivery of an infant comes at the end of 40 weeks of gestation. The expectant mother usually has a slightly heightened degree of emotional reactivity during pregnancy and needs support, acceptance and understanding from the people around her. When the infant becomes part of the family, each member of the family has some adjustments to make. Ibeagha & Ugwuegbu (1994) reported that Nigerian mothers score high as quality material care during the first six months of birth after which the quality begins to drop.
Pre-natal Development
The prenatal period which encompasses the conception to birth of a child is divided into three distinct stages. The first stages begins at conception when a sperm from the father fertilizes the mother's ovum. Fertilization occurs in one of the two narrow structures known as the fallopian tubes. The second stages of prenatal development is called the period of the embryo. During this period cell division continues to progress rapidly. The final stage of prenatal development known as he period of the foetus. extends from the eight week until birth during this time, vital structures continue to grow and develop so that the foetus comes more and more to resemble a new born infant.
Infancy
This is the period that starts from birth to two years of The process of birth gives the newborn infant the first age exposure to a personal and increasingly autonomous existence, At this delicate period the new infants needs have to be met by others. Infancy is a preparational phase of life, because all the major fundamental development of human life appear before this stage which gives way to childhood. Some universal essentials must be supplied if continuing development is to occur, because the infant needs a variety of physical and social stimuli to discover himself. Some of these include food and shelter, love and acceptance.
Early Childhood Stage
During this period 2 B 4 years the child develops motor skills that open up the first responsibilities of independence (Erikson, 1968) part of the trauma the child experiences at this time is on the transition from the first to this more mature. Al this period physiological growth de-accelerates but there is a refinement in neuro muscular controls climbing, standing on one foot. practicing dancing steps. imitating various sounds etc.
Adolescence Stage
Adolescence is stage of rapid physical and physiological changes in human development which in turn gives rise to behavioural changes. When human beings grow from childhood, through to adulthood. They acquire a sophisticated distinctive and lasting conception of themselves and the environment.
As they get transformed from a lower to higher strata of cognitive, psychological, physiological and social development. Contemporary psychologists view adolescence as a progressive transitional process between the ages of 12 B 18, usually marked by intense physiological growth, physical maturity and psycho-social changes known as puberty. During this period, the young, the young person's behaviour is precipitated by hormonal secretions. In girls the onset of puberty brings about menace and sexual maturity which involves the ovary producing eggs monthly. The boys experiences such primary characteristics like rapid development of the tests scrotum and extension of size of penis. Both male and female adolescents also experience secondary sex characteristic like growth of axillary hair and public hair while girls develop enlarged breasts and wider hips. Apart from this there is also increase in activity of the sweat gland. The boys develop strength too. At this stage adolescents look very attractive and full of vigour, while their horizon of interests and motivation is widened.
By adolescence children have learned to relate to others in a variety of ways and situations. They have also established certain feelings about themselves.
Adulthood Stage
Adulthood is comprised of early, middle and elderly adults with the age range of 19 B 29, 300 B 60 or 65 and above respectively. Every one of us begins adulthood already strongly shaped by such built-in characteristics as gender and races. During early adulthood the individual is confronted with the formation of an intimate relationship which is a component of love. This successful formation of an intimate relationship gives rise to courtship, learning to live happily with a partner, starting a family and assuming parental role with child rearing, home management, beginning career or occupation and assuming appropriate civic responsibilities. At this stage, there ar many social and biological changes in adulthood stage, although the rate of development is much more slower than in the earlier years.
Conception to Infancy:
Life does not just begin from nothing. Pre-natal development and childbirth are made up of biologically programmed sequence of events starting from the formatiu of the foetus through union of the sperm and ovum which define the hereditary endowment. The viability of the foetus increases as the months pass by. Full term for the delivery of an infant comes at the end of 40 weeks of gestation. The expectant mother usually has a slightly heightened degree of emotional reactivity during pregnancy and needs support, acceptance and understanding from the people around her. When the infant becomes part of the family, each member of the family has some adjustments to make. Ibeagha & Ugwuegbu (1994) reported that Nigerian mothers score high as quality material care during the first six months of birth after which the quality begins to drop.
Pre-natal Development
The prenatal period which encompasses the conception to birth of a child is divided into three distinct stages. The first stages begins at conception when a sperm from the father fertilizes the mother's ovum. Fertilization occurs in one of the two narrow structures known as the fallopian tubes. The second stages of prenatal development is called the period of the embryo. During this period cell division continues to progress rapidly. The final stage of prenatal development known as he period of the foetus. extends from the eight week until birth during this time, vital structures continue to grow and develop so that the foetus comes more and more to resemble a new born infant.
Infancy
This is the period that starts from birth to two years of The process of birth gives the newborn infant the first age exposure to a personal and increasingly autonomous existence, At this delicate period the new infants needs have to be met by others. Infancy is a preparational phase of life, because all the major fundamental development of human life appear before this stage which gives way to childhood. Some universal essentials must be supplied if continuing development is to occur, because the infant needs a variety of physical and social stimuli to discover himself. Some of these include food and shelter, love and acceptance.
Early Childhood Stage
During this period 2 B 4 years the child develops motor skills that open up the first responsibilities of independence (Erikson, 1968) part of the trauma the child experiences at this time is on the transition from the first to this more mature. Al this period physiological growth de-accelerates but there is a refinement in neuro muscular controls climbing, standing on one foot. practicing dancing steps. imitating various sounds etc.
Adolescence Stage
Adolescence is stage of rapid physical and physiological changes in human development which in turn gives rise to behavioural changes. When human beings grow from childhood, through to adulthood. They acquire a sophisticated distinctive and lasting conception of themselves and the environment.
As they get transformed from a lower to higher strata of cognitive, psychological, physiological and social development. Contemporary psychologists view adolescence as a progressive transitional process between the ages of 12 B 18, usually marked by intense physiological growth, physical maturity and psycho-social changes known as puberty. During this period, the young, the young person's behaviour is precipitated by hormonal secretions. In girls the onset of puberty brings about menace and sexual maturity which involves the ovary producing eggs monthly. The boys experiences such primary characteristics like rapid development of the tests scrotum and extension of size of penis. Both male and female adolescents also experience secondary sex characteristic like growth of axillary hair and public hair while girls develop enlarged breasts and wider hips. Apart from this there is also increase in activity of the sweat gland. The boys develop strength too. At this stage adolescents look very attractive and full of vigour, while their horizon of interests and motivation is widened.
By adolescence children have learned to relate to others in a variety of ways and situations. They have also established certain feelings about themselves.
Adulthood Stage
Adulthood is comprised of early, middle and elderly adults with the age range of 19 B 29, 300 B 60 or 65 and above respectively. Every one of us begins adulthood already strongly shaped by such built-in characteristics as gender and races. During early adulthood the individual is confronted with the formation of an intimate relationship which is a component of love. This successful formation of an intimate relationship gives rise to courtship, learning to live happily with a partner, starting a family and assuming parental role with child rearing, home management, beginning career or occupation and assuming appropriate civic responsibilities. At this stage, there ar many social and biological changes in adulthood stage, although the rate of development is much more slower than in the earlier years.
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