There are various ways by which we can embark on the task of gathering our data which is specified by the nature of the problem (phenomenon) under investigation. These include among others, observational method, survey method, correctional studies, experimental research, test method, case histories.
Experimental Method:
The experimental method can be used outside the laboratory as well as inside. Thus, it is possible in an experiment to investigate the effects of different psychotherapeutic methods by trying these methods out on separate but similar groups of emotionally disturbed individuals. The experimental method is a matter of logic, not of location. Even so, most experiments take place in special laboratories, chiefly because the control of conditions commonly requires special facilities, computers and other instrument. The distinguishing characteristic of a laboratory that it is a place where the experimenter can carefully control conditions and take measurements in order to discover relationship among variables.
Observational Method:
The early stages of a science necessitate exploration to become familiar with the relationships that later will be the object or more precise study Careful observation of animal and human behaviour is the starting point of psychology. In making observations of naturally occurring behaviour, however, there is a risk that interpretative anecdotes may be substituted for objective descriptions. We may be tempted for example, to say that an animal known to have been without food for a long time is "looking for food" when all we observe is weightened activity. Investigator must be trained to observe and record accurately to avoid protecting their own wishes or biases into what they report.
Survey Method:
Some problems that are difficult to study by direct observation may be studied through the use of questionnaires or interviews, Master and Johnson research on sexual response, most of the information on how people behave sexually as opposed to how laws, religion or society said they should behave. In survey research, people chosen to represent some larger population are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts or attitude. Survey method have become so sophisticated that even with a very small sample researchers are able to infer with great accuracy how a larger group would respond.
Case History Study
Scientific biographies, known as case histories, are important sources of data for psychologists studying individuals. They can, of course be case histories of institutions or group as well. Most case histories are prepared by reconstructing the biography of a person on the basis of remembered events and records reconstruction is necessary because the individual-s earlier history often does not became a matter of interest until that person develops some sort of problem, when case histories are used as a research technique the goal is often not only to learn about the few individuals being examined, but to use the insights gained from the study to improve our understanding of people in general.
Test Method
The test is an important research instrument in contemporary psychology. It is used to measure all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes and accomplishments. Tests enable the psychologist to obtain large quantities of data from people with minimal disturbance of their daily routines ad without elaborate laboratory equipment. A test essentially presents a uniform, situation to a group of people who vary in aspects relevant to the situation (such as intelligence, manual dexterity, anxiety). An analysis of the results then relates variations in test scores to variations among people.
Archival Method
Psychologists were interested in finding out more about emergency situations in which bystander did no provide help. One of the first places of which you might turn would be historical accounts by using newspaper records. For example, you might find support for the notion that a decrease in helping behaviour has accompanied an increase in the number of bystanders using newspaper articles is an example of archival research. In archival research, existing records. Such as census data, birth certificates or newspaper are examined to confirm a hypothesis. Archival research is a relatively inexpensive means of testing an hypothesis since someone else has already collected the basic data. In most cases, through archival research is hampered by the simple fact that records with the necessary information do not exist. In these instances, research often turn to another research method.
THE ORIGINS OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology made a breakthrough from philosophy through the work of physiologists who sought to understand the operation of the nervous system and its role in perception. Psychology in the west reportedly started in 1879. This was marked by the establishment of the first psychology laboratory at University of Leipzig in Germany.
The Roots of Psychology
When Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879. His aim was to study the building blocks of the mind. Considering psychology to be the study of conscious experience, he developed a mode that came to be known as structuralism. Structuralism focused on the fundamental elements that form the foundation of thinking, consciousness, emotions and other kind of merit states and activities.
To come to understand how basic sensation combined to produce our awareness of the world. Wundt and structuralist used a procedure called introspection to study the structure of the mind. In introspection people were presented with a stimulus B such as a bright green object or a sentence printed on a card B and asked to describe in their own words and in as much detail as they could manage. What they were experiencing, Wundt agree that psychologists could come to understand the structure of mind through the reports that people offered of their reactions. (Bjork, 1997).
Wundt's structuralism did not stand the test of time. however psychologists became increasingly dissatisfied with the assumption that introspection could unlock the fundamental elements of the mind. For one thing people had difficulty describing some kind of inner experiences such as emotional response (try to analyze and explain the primary elements of what you are feeling the next time you experience anger for instance).
William psychology was published in the United States of America in 1890. In 1898, Edward L. Thorndike conducted the first experiment on animal learning in the United States while in Anstria Sigmund Freud introduced his psychoanalytic theory with the interpretation of dreams in 1900. John B. Watson in the United States started psychology as a science of behaviour in 1900 in contributing to the development of psychology, Watson. Thorndike, James other early psychologists variously brought their knowledge of such disciplines as philosophy and psychology to bear on psychological reasoning. The different schools of thought and their approach in their historical order are:
The structuralists: The founder of the structuralist school of thought is Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt founded psychology as a separate science by setting up the first experimental laboratories in Europe and America. Wundi and his followers are called structuralists because they claimed that complex mental experiences were really "structures" from simple mental states. Their primary approach was introspective analysis under controlled conditions.
The functionalists: Concentrated on what the mind does B the functions of mental activities as well as the function of behaviour in general. Functionalists whose model rose to prominence in the early 1990s asked what roles behaviour played in allowing people to better adapt to their environments, held by American psychologist William James.
The psychoanalysts: This school of thought came up within the same period that functionalist started. At the beginning of the 1900s. The psychoanalytic movement came with advances in the field of medical psychology and practices of the early school of hypnosis. The leader of this group is Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysts developed a new specialised technique which is largely based on interpretation of the patients freely associated.
The Gestaltists: The Gestalt school of thought came up in 1912 during the first world war. A German psychologist Wolfgang Kohier came out certain experiments on the learning process of apes named "sultan". This experiment was a great importance and provided so much insight into learning. The school of thought founded was called Gestalt School.
Gestalt in German means "pattern" more contributors to the Gestalt school are Kofka and Lewin. The main topics are perception and memory while their methods of study are introspection, observation and experiment.
The Behaviourists: This school of thought originated from the United States of America in 1913 about the time of the first world war. John. B. Watson, whose initial interest had been on animal experimentation led adherents to this school. As far as behavioursits were concerned. The traditional "unconsciousness" and "introspection" approaches of the early psychologists were of a practical value. The behaviourists transferred their techniques of studying animal behaviour to the study of human behaviour.
The Humanistic Approach: This is the most recent school of thought which came up in 1951. This arose as a reaction on the one hand to the psychoanalytic view which sees people as driven by unconscious internal forces, and on the other hand the behaviourist view that sees people as being shaped by the external environment. Humanistic psychologists emphasise the human capabilities to choose desire life patterns and to ground to greater maturity and fulfilment in pursuit of life goals. Humanities seek to understand behaviour mere subjectively in term of its meaning to the individual. Psychologists who belong to this group are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers while Maslow emphasises the concept of self-actualization and the positive aspect of human nature". Rogers on the other hand adopts a counselling approach called client centered therapy.
Psychological Development: Of all mammals human beings are the most immature at birth and require the longest period of development before they are capable of all the activities and skills characteristic of their species. In general, the higher on the phylogenetic scale the organism is, the more complex its nervous system and the longer the time required to reach maturity: for example, the Lemur, a primitive primate, can move about on its own shortly after birth and is soon able to eat adult food and fend for itself. The new born monkey is dependent for several months, the infant baboon remains with its mother for several years. The human offspring, in contrast is dependent for many years and requires a long period of learning and interaction with other before becoming self sufficient.
Psychologists often study the average of "typical" rate of development at what age does the average child begin to speak? How rapidly does vocabulary increase with age?
Developmental psychologists are concerned also with how certain behaviours develop and why they appear when they do. Why do most children not walk or utter their first word until they are about a year old?
When Wilhelm Wundt set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879. His aim was to study the building blocks of the mind. Considering psychology to be the study of conscious experience, he developed a mode that came to be known as structuralism. Structuralism focused on the fundamental elements that form the foundation of thinking, consciousness, emotions and other kind of merit states and activities.
To come to understand how basic sensation combined to produce our awareness of the world. Wundt and structuralist used a procedure called introspection to study the structure of the mind. In introspection people were presented with a stimulus B such as a bright green object or a sentence printed on a card B and asked to describe in their own words and in as much detail as they could manage. What they were experiencing, Wundt agree that psychologists could come to understand the structure of mind through the reports that people offered of their reactions. (Bjork, 1997).
Wundt's structuralism did not stand the test of time. however psychologists became increasingly dissatisfied with the assumption that introspection could unlock the fundamental elements of the mind. For one thing people had difficulty describing some kind of inner experiences such as emotional response (try to analyze and explain the primary elements of what you are feeling the next time you experience anger for instance).
William psychology was published in the United States of America in 1890. In 1898, Edward L. Thorndike conducted the first experiment on animal learning in the United States while in Anstria Sigmund Freud introduced his psychoanalytic theory with the interpretation of dreams in 1900. John B. Watson in the United States started psychology as a science of behaviour in 1900 in contributing to the development of psychology, Watson. Thorndike, James other early psychologists variously brought their knowledge of such disciplines as philosophy and psychology to bear on psychological reasoning. The different schools of thought and their approach in their historical order are:
The structuralists: The founder of the structuralist school of thought is Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt founded psychology as a separate science by setting up the first experimental laboratories in Europe and America. Wundi and his followers are called structuralists because they claimed that complex mental experiences were really "structures" from simple mental states. Their primary approach was introspective analysis under controlled conditions.
The functionalists: Concentrated on what the mind does B the functions of mental activities as well as the function of behaviour in general. Functionalists whose model rose to prominence in the early 1990s asked what roles behaviour played in allowing people to better adapt to their environments, held by American psychologist William James.
The psychoanalysts: This school of thought came up within the same period that functionalist started. At the beginning of the 1900s. The psychoanalytic movement came with advances in the field of medical psychology and practices of the early school of hypnosis. The leader of this group is Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysts developed a new specialised technique which is largely based on interpretation of the patients freely associated.
The Gestaltists: The Gestalt school of thought came up in 1912 during the first world war. A German psychologist Wolfgang Kohier came out certain experiments on the learning process of apes named "sultan". This experiment was a great importance and provided so much insight into learning. The school of thought founded was called Gestalt School.
Gestalt in German means "pattern" more contributors to the Gestalt school are Kofka and Lewin. The main topics are perception and memory while their methods of study are introspection, observation and experiment.
The Behaviourists: This school of thought originated from the United States of America in 1913 about the time of the first world war. John. B. Watson, whose initial interest had been on animal experimentation led adherents to this school. As far as behavioursits were concerned. The traditional "unconsciousness" and "introspection" approaches of the early psychologists were of a practical value. The behaviourists transferred their techniques of studying animal behaviour to the study of human behaviour.
The Humanistic Approach: This is the most recent school of thought which came up in 1951. This arose as a reaction on the one hand to the psychoanalytic view which sees people as driven by unconscious internal forces, and on the other hand the behaviourist view that sees people as being shaped by the external environment. Humanistic psychologists emphasise the human capabilities to choose desire life patterns and to ground to greater maturity and fulfilment in pursuit of life goals. Humanities seek to understand behaviour mere subjectively in term of its meaning to the individual. Psychologists who belong to this group are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers while Maslow emphasises the concept of self-actualization and the positive aspect of human nature". Rogers on the other hand adopts a counselling approach called client centered therapy.
Psychological Development: Of all mammals human beings are the most immature at birth and require the longest period of development before they are capable of all the activities and skills characteristic of their species. In general, the higher on the phylogenetic scale the organism is, the more complex its nervous system and the longer the time required to reach maturity: for example, the Lemur, a primitive primate, can move about on its own shortly after birth and is soon able to eat adult food and fend for itself. The new born monkey is dependent for several months, the infant baboon remains with its mother for several years. The human offspring, in contrast is dependent for many years and requires a long period of learning and interaction with other before becoming self sufficient.
Psychologists often study the average of "typical" rate of development at what age does the average child begin to speak? How rapidly does vocabulary increase with age?
Developmental psychologists are concerned also with how certain behaviours develop and why they appear when they do. Why do most children not walk or utter their first word until they are about a year old?
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