Psychology touches almost every aspect of our lives. As society has come more complex, psychology has assumed an increasing important role in solving human problems. Psychologist are concerned with astonishing variety of problems some are of broad concern what child B rearing methods produce happy and effective adult? How can mental illness be prevented? What can be done to eliminate race prejudice? What family and social conditions contribute to alienation, aggression and crime?
Other problems are more specific. What is the best treatment for smoking or obesity? Can man care for infants as ably as women? To what extent are political surveys self- fulfilling prophecies? How should the instruments in an air- traffic control tower be arranged to minimized controller errors? How can one help a terminally ill person achieve a peaceful death Psychologist are working on these and many other questions.
Psychology also affects our lives through its influence on laws and public policy. Law concerning discrimination. capital punishment, pornography, sexual behaviour, and the conditions under which individuals may be held legally responsible for their actions are influenced by psychological theories and research. For example, laws pertaining to sexual deviancy have changed markedly in the past 30 years as research has shown that many sexual acts previously classed as perversions are "normal" in the sense that most people engage in them.
The effect of TV violence on children is of concern to parents and psychologist. Only after studies provided evidence of the harmful effects of such programme has been possible to modify. Because psychology affects so many aspects of our lives, it is important, even for those who do not intend to specialize in the field, to know something about its basic facts and research methods. An introductory course in psychology should give you a better understanding of why people believe as they do and should provide insights into your own attitudes and reactions. It should also help you evaluate the many claims made in the name of psychology.
Psychology is a young science compared to other scientific disciplinses, and recent years have seen a virtual explosion in psychological research. As a result, psychological theories and concepts continue to change and evolve. For this reason, it is difficult to give a precise definition of psychology. Basically, psychologist are interested in finding out why people act as they do. But there are different ways of explaining human actions. Before we provide a formal definition of psychology, it will be useful to consider some alternative approaches to psychological phenomena.
Psychology also affects our lives through its influence on laws and public policy. Law concerning discrimination. capital punishment, pornography, sexual behaviour, and the conditions under which individuals may be held legally responsible for their actions are influenced by psychological theories and research. For example, laws pertaining to sexual deviancy have changed markedly in the past 30 years as research has shown that many sexual acts previously classed as perversions are "normal" in the sense that most people engage in them.
The effect of TV violence on children is of concern to parents and psychologist. Only after studies provided evidence of the harmful effects of such programme has been possible to modify. Because psychology affects so many aspects of our lives, it is important, even for those who do not intend to specialize in the field, to know something about its basic facts and research methods. An introductory course in psychology should give you a better understanding of why people believe as they do and should provide insights into your own attitudes and reactions. It should also help you evaluate the many claims made in the name of psychology.
Psychology is a young science compared to other scientific disciplinses, and recent years have seen a virtual explosion in psychological research. As a result, psychological theories and concepts continue to change and evolve. For this reason, it is difficult to give a precise definition of psychology. Basically, psychologist are interested in finding out why people act as they do. But there are different ways of explaining human actions. Before we provide a formal definition of psychology, it will be useful to consider some alternative approaches to psychological phenomena.
Approaches to Psychology
Any action a person takes can be explained from several different points of view. Suppose, for example, you walk across the street. This act can be described as the firing of the nerves that activate the muscles that move the legs that transport you across the street. It can also be described without reference to anything within the body, the green light be explained in terms of it purpose or goal, you plan to visit a friend and crossing the street is one of many acts involved in carrying out the plan.
Just as there are different ways of describing such a simple act as crossing the street, there are also different approaches to psychology. Many approaches are possible, but the five presented here provide an insight into the major conceptions of modern psychology. Because these diverse view points will appear throughout the book. We will provide only a brief description of some main point. One should bear in mind that these approaches are not mutually exclusive rather, they tend to focus on different aspect of a complex problem. There is no "right" or "wrong" approach to the study of psychology. Most psychologist take an eclectic view point, using a synthesis of several approaches in explaining psychological phenomena.
Behavioural Approach
A person eats breakfast, rides a bicycle, talks, laughs and cries. All these are forms of behaviour, those activities of an organism that can be observed with the behavioural approach, a psychologist studies individually looking at their behaviour rather than at their internal workings.
The view that behaviour should be the sole subject matter of psychology was first advanced by the American psychologist John B. Watson in early 1900's. Before that psychology had been defined as the study of mental experiences, and its data were largely self-observations in the form of introspection. Introspection refers to an individual's careful observing and recording of his or her own perceptions and feelings. It ranges from reporting immediate sensory impression to the onset of a stimulus. Watson felt that introspection was a futile approach. He argued that if psychology were to be a science, its data must be observable and measurable. Only you can introspect about your perceptions and feelings, but others can observe your behaviour. Watson maintained that only by studying what people do B their behaviour B is an objective science of psychology possible.
Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychologists argue that we are not passive receptors of stimuli, the mind actively processes the information it receives and transforms it into new forms and categories.
Cognitive refers to the mental processes of perception, memory and information processing by which the individual acquires knowledge, solve problems and plans for the future. Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of cognition. Its goal is to conduct experiment and develop theories that explain how mental processes are organised and function. But explanation requires that the theories make predictions about observable events, namely behaviour. As we shall see, one can theorize about cognitive processes and how they work without resorting to neurobiological explanations.
The cognitive approach to the study of psychology developed partly in reaction to the narrowness of the stimulus and response view.
Psychoanalytic Approach
The psychoanalytic conception of human behaviour was developed by Sigmund Freud in Europe at about the same time Unlike the ideas discussed thus far, psychoanalytic concepts are based on extensive case studies of individual patients rather than on experimental studies. Psychoanalytic ideas have had a profound influence on psychological thinking. The basic assumption of Freud's theory is that much of our behaviour stems from processes that are unconscious. By unconscious processes Freud meant thoughts, fears, and wishes of person is unaware of but which nevertheless influence behaviour. He believed that many of the impulses that are forbidden or punished by parents and society during childhood are derived from innate instincts. Because each of us is born with these impulses, they exert a pervasive influence that must be dealt with in some manner. Forbidding them merely drives them out of awareness into unconscious, where they remain to affect behaviour.
Most psychologists do not completely accept Freud's view of the unconscious. They would probably agree that individual are not fully aware of some aspects of their personality. But they prefer to speak of degrees of awareness rather than assume that a sharp distinction exist between conscious and unconscious thoughts.
Phenomenological Approach
The phenomenological approach focuses on subjective experience. It is concerned with the individual's view of the world and interpretation of events. The individual's phenomenology. This approach seeks to understand event or phenomena, as they are experienced by the individual and to do so without imposing any preconceptions or theoretical ideas.
Phenomenological psychologists believe that we can learn more about human nature by studying how people view themselves and their world than we can by observing their actions. Two people might behave quite differently in response to the same situation, only by asking how each interprets the situation can we fully understand their behaviour.
Phenomenological approach is similar to the cognitive approach. There is major difference, however in the kinds of problems studied and in the scientific rigor of the methods used to study them. Cognitive psychologists are concerned primarily with how individuals perceive events and code, categorize, and represent information in memory. Phenomenological psychologists tend to reject the notion that
behaviour is controlled by unconscious impulses (psychoanalytic theories) or by external stimuli (behaviourism). They prefer to believe that we are not Aacted on by forces beyond our control but instead are Aactors@. Capable of controlling our own destiny. We are the builders of our own lives because each of us is a free agent B free to make choices and set goals and thus accountable for our life choices. Phenomenological theories are also called humanistic because they emphasize those qualities that distinguish people from animals.
Any action a person takes can be explained from several different points of view. Suppose, for example, you walk across the street. This act can be described as the firing of the nerves that activate the muscles that move the legs that transport you across the street. It can also be described without reference to anything within the body, the green light be explained in terms of it purpose or goal, you plan to visit a friend and crossing the street is one of many acts involved in carrying out the plan.
Just as there are different ways of describing such a simple act as crossing the street, there are also different approaches to psychology. Many approaches are possible, but the five presented here provide an insight into the major conceptions of modern psychology. Because these diverse view points will appear throughout the book. We will provide only a brief description of some main point. One should bear in mind that these approaches are not mutually exclusive rather, they tend to focus on different aspect of a complex problem. There is no "right" or "wrong" approach to the study of psychology. Most psychologist take an eclectic view point, using a synthesis of several approaches in explaining psychological phenomena.
Behavioural Approach
A person eats breakfast, rides a bicycle, talks, laughs and cries. All these are forms of behaviour, those activities of an organism that can be observed with the behavioural approach, a psychologist studies individually looking at their behaviour rather than at their internal workings.
The view that behaviour should be the sole subject matter of psychology was first advanced by the American psychologist John B. Watson in early 1900's. Before that psychology had been defined as the study of mental experiences, and its data were largely self-observations in the form of introspection. Introspection refers to an individual's careful observing and recording of his or her own perceptions and feelings. It ranges from reporting immediate sensory impression to the onset of a stimulus. Watson felt that introspection was a futile approach. He argued that if psychology were to be a science, its data must be observable and measurable. Only you can introspect about your perceptions and feelings, but others can observe your behaviour. Watson maintained that only by studying what people do B their behaviour B is an objective science of psychology possible.
Cognitive Approach
Cognitive psychologists argue that we are not passive receptors of stimuli, the mind actively processes the information it receives and transforms it into new forms and categories.
Cognitive refers to the mental processes of perception, memory and information processing by which the individual acquires knowledge, solve problems and plans for the future. Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of cognition. Its goal is to conduct experiment and develop theories that explain how mental processes are organised and function. But explanation requires that the theories make predictions about observable events, namely behaviour. As we shall see, one can theorize about cognitive processes and how they work without resorting to neurobiological explanations.
The cognitive approach to the study of psychology developed partly in reaction to the narrowness of the stimulus and response view.
Psychoanalytic Approach
The psychoanalytic conception of human behaviour was developed by Sigmund Freud in Europe at about the same time Unlike the ideas discussed thus far, psychoanalytic concepts are based on extensive case studies of individual patients rather than on experimental studies. Psychoanalytic ideas have had a profound influence on psychological thinking. The basic assumption of Freud's theory is that much of our behaviour stems from processes that are unconscious. By unconscious processes Freud meant thoughts, fears, and wishes of person is unaware of but which nevertheless influence behaviour. He believed that many of the impulses that are forbidden or punished by parents and society during childhood are derived from innate instincts. Because each of us is born with these impulses, they exert a pervasive influence that must be dealt with in some manner. Forbidding them merely drives them out of awareness into unconscious, where they remain to affect behaviour.
Most psychologists do not completely accept Freud's view of the unconscious. They would probably agree that individual are not fully aware of some aspects of their personality. But they prefer to speak of degrees of awareness rather than assume that a sharp distinction exist between conscious and unconscious thoughts.
Phenomenological Approach
The phenomenological approach focuses on subjective experience. It is concerned with the individual's view of the world and interpretation of events. The individual's phenomenology. This approach seeks to understand event or phenomena, as they are experienced by the individual and to do so without imposing any preconceptions or theoretical ideas.
Phenomenological psychologists believe that we can learn more about human nature by studying how people view themselves and their world than we can by observing their actions. Two people might behave quite differently in response to the same situation, only by asking how each interprets the situation can we fully understand their behaviour.
Phenomenological approach is similar to the cognitive approach. There is major difference, however in the kinds of problems studied and in the scientific rigor of the methods used to study them. Cognitive psychologists are concerned primarily with how individuals perceive events and code, categorize, and represent information in memory. Phenomenological psychologists tend to reject the notion that
behaviour is controlled by unconscious impulses (psychoanalytic theories) or by external stimuli (behaviourism). They prefer to believe that we are not Aacted on by forces beyond our control but instead are Aactors@. Capable of controlling our own destiny. We are the builders of our own lives because each of us is a free agent B free to make choices and set goals and thus accountable for our life choices. Phenomenological theories are also called humanistic because they emphasize those qualities that distinguish people from animals.
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